Mostly a function of people having more money which cases population growth. In 1688 a quarter of the population lived in cities and great town (Gregory King) 14% of the population was in production of non physical commodities average income £7 in 1688, this doubled by 1770. (0.72 growth rate of GDP / cap not GDP) By the end of the eighteenth century GDP was growing at 2% , and GDP/cap at 1% Population of China in 1770 was 240 million, double that of Europe Crashes and Shocks 1873 Vienna crash signaled the end of liberalism
same with 1929 crash in US
RISING WELFARISM Bismarck designed the welfare state to defeat class war which it did.
BUSINESS, INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION In c19 big business was Dombey and Son ( general manager, owner and 2 clerks). In Trollops Home Office there worked 6 people ( and that was Great Britain most important department)
The largest manufacturing company in 1850 was the cotton mill run by Marx's friend Engels ! (one of the most profitable of its day)
Child Labour :
Between 1842 and 92 the number of paupers halved, from 6.3% obtaining poor relief to 2.6%
Factory system offered a livelihood for 10s of 1000s of youths who pre capitalism would not have lived to see adulthood. Proportion of those in London dying before age 5 dropped from 74.5% 1730-1749 to 31.8% in 1810-1829. (CUI) No factory owner forced anyone to take a job. (remember Dickens and Mrs. Browings are novelists and not historians!) The Pre-factory system was far from ideal- the worker paid heavily for the loom and took a big risk, his house was damp and badly lit, his diet meagre. The industrial revolution made the workers home more sanitary by removing the factory from it. "With singular unanimity in any country where they had the chance the poor have walked off the land into factories as fast as the factories could take them" WTF p104 (advantages: working indoors, warmer, less physically hard work, security of a wage rather than a possible harvest ) It was the state that put orphan children in the factories to learn a trade, however families had always worked together and wanted to continue to do so. Urban wages rose 43% from 1790-1831 ( cost of living rose 11%) Britain's problems was it gentrified the industrialists or their children at Oxbridge Even the very poor saved. Unemployment insurance was provided initially by trade unions and then nationalised
90% were members of friendly societies
The first laws against exploitation was of the government funded parish system exploiting orphans Child Labour ended for real when incomes rose high enough to make it possible for the parents to support them ( Locke said in 1697 that a couple could support less than 2 children at that time). The real heroes were the industrialists and financiers who made this possible. The Industrial Rev brought "luxuries" to the masses- shoes instead of clogs, hats instead of shawls, coffee , tea, sugar instead of plain food, cotton clothes that no longer had to last a decade, hygiene (CUI) AMERICAN FREE ENTERPRISE Governments financed only about 10% of the railroads, 3 of the government ones went bankrupt and most of the scams happened in the government ones. California got a monopoly by legislation and thus could charge high monopoly rates. The legislators of New York and Albany tried to extort money from the railroads but ended up going bankrupt themselves. There were many attempts to corner many markets- cotton , wheat and others but all failed. In a free market no monopolies last long (e.g. .IBM) unless they are low cost, low price despite being a monopoly- International Nickel produces 2/3rds of the worlds copper but there are substitutes- alloys, stainless steel - so no high prices. In the 1810-1820 many absolute monarchs were restored , the C19 was still fighting a rear guard action against ancien regime. It was also a time of growing socialism and anarchism : Marx, Proudhon, Bakunin Before 1830 no one had started industrialising except UK and a little in France , after everyone did. The first railways, the British were entirely privately financed, the Belgians state owned and the French a bit of both, some German government forbade private ownership fearful a monopoly could strangle commerce. Railways made 5 trips a day compared to the canals one and carried 50 times the freight. By 1850 in Britain 20% of workers were in agriculture, 12% in textiles Other industries saw rapid advance-paper , canning, chemicals French had an intermediate stage before limited liability which was a company when only the sleeping partners had limited liability ( why not just float bonds instead ?) (source cites the rich landowner who could loose his whole fortune by investing actively in a joint stock company- but liability limited to extent of his knowledge - and who else should be responsible - the suppliers who otherwise have to pick up the bill?) In return for limited liability companies had to give all their directors names to the government and publish accounts Cities developed where there were only villages , many expanded. FREE TRADE Britain was the first country to develop completely free trade in 1860, it had started the process earlier, and the other countries implemented free trade in 1850s and 60s Prussia's 1818 law allowed raw materials in free, but heavy duties on manufactures entering Britain was the main exporter of capital especially to North and South America , France started after 1850 to a much smaller extent RISING STANDARDS OF LIVING In France the quality and quantity of the peasants food grew rapidly from 1840 p113 Europe in the 19thCentury Hearder p 113 Consumption of sugar more than doubled 1840-80, same with wine. Peasants and children worked long hours in the fields Agricultural workers had a marked improvement between 1850 and 1870, declining before and after There wasn't enough land for everyone in Ireland and rents were high Textile industry was biggest single employer of women in UK, and cotton famine caused by US WBS, could put lots of workers out of work Wage improvement more between 1750-1800 than 1800-50 ( because of protectionism ?) 1810-40 rise in death rate, varied greatly between good times and bad Initial move from cottage to factory brought sharp rise in cash wages and also real wages Remember "growing middle class" means workers were becoming richer ! Coal and soap became cheaper and more plentiful Production of cotton clothes 1785-1840 increased ten times In the 1840s workers could afford carpets and comfortable furniture 1810-1830 in Germany there was a shortage of labour Sanitation : (1) Make people responsible financially for the disposal of their own waste - penalty restitution on the cost of disposal (2) privatised police force to enforce (3) capital supplying automatic sewers through joint stock operations ( as eventually happened with many things) 1840 Germany 10% of the workers were less than 14 In the linen industry in Silesia some 4 year olds were employed Factory act 1833 limited age of children working to 9, and restricted hours for the others The ten hour bill was bitterly opposed by Cobden and Bright and rightly so The former did believe that children should be kept out of the mines but that the decision should be left to the parents concerned 1848 - 15 European capitals faced revolutions Prussia passed laws on child labour and in 1871 , the 12 hour day Nobody force the workers to work 15 hour days ! Workers were hostile in Germany seeing these laws as restricting their incomes (correctly)( Europe in the 19thCentury Hearder p135) Shop workers worked longer hours (about 90 / week , bills to restrict failed) and were lower paid but women sometimes preferred the greater respectability Breaking of machines common in 1830s and 40s Repeal of Combination acts in 1824 had effectively made Trade Unions legal (they voted liberal) In other countries they were not. Gladstone and Disraeli passed acts to allow Trade Unions to strike In 1791 any associations between workers or employers were illegal in France and the Napoleonic code accepted the employers word in any verbal disputes on contracts, some illegal strikes took place but the majority of men seldom joined In 1831 the silk workers of Lyon tried to arrange a minimum wage but only some employers were willing to negotiate and violence resulted that required the army to quell. The revolutionary governments in 1848 in France and Germany legalised Trade Union activity briefly The gilds were only just being abolished at that time in Germany The poor laws paid out of parish rates, made people paupers ( bit like welfare today), also argues it kept wages low though don't see how this can be The idea of the workhouse- deterring state relief until exhausted all other possibilities was a good one. Rural paupers much rarer in France than England, hence no poor relief system The church in France did what was done by JPs in England - alms giving In Prussia it was again the town council and the poor rate, but they also lodged paupers with people who would accept them. This seems a good idea and the paupers could work in the houses of those who kept them Britain was very harsh in her punishments - harder than Biblical law- believing too much in the value of deterrence ( would be interesting to compare its crime with other countries at the time) (we know that it is to some degree a deterrent) Britain's landed class held onto power better than the nobility in France and Germany but those earning more than £10,000 from land in 1870 were only 50% lords. Europe in the 19thCentury Hearder p143 To some degree the landed interest included all village people and the town all the townies , rather than class struggle between rich and poor The rise of the middle class to political power was greatest in France then Italy, Germany then Britain. The former due to the revolution of course and their very incomplete restoration in 1815 Married women of the upper class enjoyed increasing leisure In c19 many more people enjoyed the aristocrats excessive diet The amount of reading and writing grew voluminously Being a servant to the upper classes was a good job because in a sense they enjoyed the upper class world they were better housed and fed than peasants or factory workers In 1851 , 1 million servants, 500000 in the cotton industry, 1.7 mil in agriculture Licensed brothels on the continent were prosperous in Lille there were 42 in 1841 . In contrast in England there was no licensing , reliance was placed on missions and there were no medical checkup as on the continent. The nineteenth century saw far less wars than the previous two or even in the previous 15 centuries. The south American war in 1865-70 killed more than half the population of Paraguay and left 6 women for every one man Italy united in 1861 Bismarck provoked a war with Austria intentionally Franco Prussian war in 1870 united Germany The press whipped up support for war in Paris and Berlin as it had done in London in 1854 Greek independence was recognized by the power and Egyptian/ Turks driven out., British sank the former's fleet France Louise Philipe of Orleans- sent kids to state school, was accessible Only person speaking for the worker was Saint Simon, Proudhon, etc. not Shaftburys 200,000 voters out of 35 million population After 1848 universal male suffrage- first time in Europe- showing the masses were more conservative than the middle class revolutionaries electing a bishop, 15 priests and a monk. 1852 Louise Napoleon dismissed the assembly and rules by decree later getting a plebiscite to endorse his actions( 7.5 mil to 700,000)- 2nd empire 18 years, assembly restored but powerless Central civil service grew from 130,000 people to 220,000 from 1839-71, most of increase post office and education Spain, no longer a great power by c19. No middle class, nobles not involved in trade- and so impoverished, civil wars and disputes over succession, eventually a constitution Britain 1834 reform act shifted power to the industrialised north- increased electorate by a half The prosperous fifties destroyed the Chartist movement at that time- movement started as a result of poor laws Cobden and Bright attracted attention of working classes away from chartism and onto repeal of the corn laws which kept bread prices high ( workers for free trade !) Peel lowered tariffs but introduced income tax 1841, but still high on corn Safety at sea - an externality ? Why couldn't the traders hire gunboats to protect them ? If this wasn't profitable then what the government spent protecting them probably had higher costs than benefits . 46-66 Whig ascendancy , violence of early 30s and 40s forgotten Gladstone- son of rich Liverpool merchant, brilliant academic at Eton and Oxford Crimea and the passage to India- is this another externality- many businesses would loose money if the passage was not kept open but who would close it and loose the business passing through ? 1866-7 bad harvests and Austro-Prussian war deprived Britain of markets causing unemployment, the working class were again agitating ( before this Palmerston had concluded working class not eager for the vote which was true in that they really wanted prosperity) Elections by secret ballot was to reduce bribery of the electorate Even short wars in which Britain was neutral affected her trade and unemployment flared up The force of popular demands was to get a representative legislature instead of a hereditary executive but the task should have been to get rid of the executive and replace it with a judiciary instead. Neither the new ministers in Paris after the Feb revolution or those in Prussia had much sympathy with socialist ideas mid century. Mostly lawyers and professors. William the 1st's main disagreement with the liberals in the parliament was their resistance to his strengthening of the army, the king had been trained in the army ( a second son, not expected to succeed to the throne) "up to a point [Bismarck] was a Hegelian, he believed that God's truth was revealed in History and that it was not for the statesman to lay down fixed principles nor to follow abstract ideals" p249- all he could do was to obey God's will as it was revealed in the movement of the times "speeches and majority resolutions would not decide the great questions of the age but iron and blood" of the poles : "the wolf is responsible for being as God had made him but we kill him just the same if we can" Von Moltke helped defeat Austria by use of the railway and telegraph. He foresaw the total war of the 20th century complete with propaganda of enemy as total evil. Prussia took much territory and the people elected more conservatives to the parliament, universal suffrage was introduced by Bismarck., foreseeing it wouldn't lead immediately to socialism, seeing the radical middle classes as the enemy and being unconcerned what would happen after his death. It is the leader who makes the fewest plunders who eventually succeeds. After the Franco-Prussian war France paid Germany an indemnity of FF5 billion,- £200mil .Bismarck supported the Old Catholics (not accepting infallibility) and dissolved the Jesuits- but after the new pope in 1878 he allied with the church in opposing socialist doctrines. Lasalle and Marx believed that wages would never be allowed to rise over a subsistence level but this was a feature of state taxation and of feudalism rather than of capitalism. In 1879 he broke with the liberals and imposed tariffs. Italy In 1830 had not one democratic assembly and Lombardy and Venetia were held by Austria. 1848 new liberal pope introduced freedom of the press, not present in Vienna at all. Garibaldi had led armies in south America before defending Rome against the French. The loss of Rome in 1870 to Italy greatly increased the pope's spiritual authority Belgium, Holland and Switzerland Belg Constit-of 1831 much copied, more democratic than Britain's at the time, left wing pressed for a single chamber quoting Rousseau, judiciary carefully kept independent of the state, tax qualification for the vote very low by standards of the time, but King could veto legislation and disolve Parliament. The senate had to be of great wealth and over 40, unlike French and British of the time, it allowed for its own revision, Holland's constitution of 1815 would not have been out of place in the 16th century, the executive was the king, pure and simple., his power grew till he resigned in 1840 after his budget failed by 50 votes to 1 Eventually copied from Belgium and England, new constitution in 1848.(oligarchic) Swiss constitution like the American, one house elected by states, one by the people.-pure democracy , After 1874, any 8 cantons or 30,000 people could propose direct leglation, if it secured a straight majority by universal vote it became law without recourse to any legislative assembly. Neutral powers seldom loved by the rest of the world. In all 3 countries the ancient antipathies between Catholics and Calvinists remained. But the emergence of the secular liberal movement diffused this. In Holland they were seen by the Protestants as enemies, in Switzerland as friends against the Catholics. Church versus state centred on the control of education , preoccupation of Dutch politics for many years -this and the issue of what % of the population should vote were amongst the great issues of the time. Before 1870 some Swiss cantons tried to eliminate children and female labour and shorten working hours but industry simply moved to the other cantons, until the revision of 1874 gave the federal government power to legislate nationally on these things. Before 1815 some cantons still engaged in torture,religious intolerance and press censorship. The Swiss catholics opposed centralism as it would break their hold over education. In 1841 a canton dissolved the monastries All three countries experienced bloodshed in the 1830s after poor harvests the year before, agriculture was depressed and wages became lower, bankruptcies frequent, unemployment grew. The Wealth of Holland accumulated from 1815-30 was squandered in the wars thereafter. A Sad Anachronism- Austro Hungary Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey had all collapsed by 1923 Lost Lombardy in 1859 and Venetia in1866 and lost dominant position in Germany enjoyed since 1815 but she was able to take over Bosnia from Turkey. Francis brought in more police power and brought the death penalty back. Metternich was influenced by Burke , who accused Warren Hastings the trial of which Metternich saw- confirming in Metternich the sanctity of tradition. Francis's son Ferdinand was epileptic and mentally retarded. emancipation of serfs passed in 1847, with compensation for landowners, After revolution became law. It was not the tradition of the Hapsburgs to control their ministers like Frederick the Great or Louis the 14th. . No Austrian student was allowed to visit any foreign university Francis Joseph made Austria-Hungary even more of a police state but after 1855 as clerical as in the days of Marie Theresa The Austrian army , conscripted for 14 years was far too large for the economic capablity of the country.Although mainly neutral Austria-Hungary remained moblised during the Crimean war and her finances were greatly depleted. The officer training from 11-18 was only with same sex (like English public school) and same year ( not allowed to mix with other years, or read novels, or have many visits) The Russian Romanovs were absolute rulers of church and state Nicolas 1 1825-55 was the peak of Russian power- immense power over the German princes, re-established the secret police that Alexander 1 had abolished. He spoke German at home. There were 20 or more outbreaks of violence every year by the peasants but Nicholas liberalised nothing. The Crimean War meant Russia was not able to fulfill her role as protector of the Christian subjects of the Sultan- not altogether a bad role considering the historic behaviour of the Turks. In the past bankrupt aristocrats had freely auctioned their serfs in a way such as to break up families. Serfs emancipated in 1861 but had to pay stiff compensation to their former owners, economically they were no better off In 1864, legal reforms brought in trial by jury, courts open to the public, The intellectuals of Russia were totally ignored and so their theory was totally destructive and of what Utopia would replace the regime. In Russia as with serf/slave cultures elsewhere the primarly desire of the exploited slave given the chance was to exploit other slaves ! p335 Russia didnt have a system of law like the west but only age old customs It had more than half a million civil servants whose corruption was unequalled in the West (what caused this , the system of government or perhaps the Orthodox church's system of Greek philosophy- i.e. material world is bad so no sense of calling in worldly pursuits. Army organised the building of roads, mining, forestry,and even education. Those pressganged into the army had to serve for 25 years, villages never saw them again, their wives could remarry At the time of crimea the army was 1 1/2 million people- 40% of national expenditure.(gdp) Endless floggings that often ended in death (up to 1000 strokes) Alexander 2 reduced the time to 15 years and reduced corporal punishment. Turkey and further East The Sick man of Europe If Russia was 50% influenced by Europe, Turkey was not at all influenced Many of the Balkan states- Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania gained independence from Turkey in the nineteenth century The Turkmen settled tribes in Central Asia changed little apart from adopting firearms for their blood feuds. These people were very backward, even the non-nomadic ones, even compared to Russia. Russia expanded east and Britain was unduly alarmed not reconginising the vast distances involved. The collapse of the Mogul empire in the eighteenth century and the resulting anarchy had forced the traders in India to deal with the warring princes. Africa The powers showed little interest in Africa, south of the Sahara .before 1880. Livingstone left England in 1841 and Stanley found him in 71. The latter managed to raise capital from Leopold of Belgium and together they invested to develop Africa. The abolishment of the slave trade, made economic by the industrial revolution ,brought some trouble to the African economy where slaves were currency in some places and a penalty for crime. The African chiefs said the Europeans had no right to interfere with ancient tribal customs ( like slavery). 1864-70 Paraguay attacked Arg, Urug and Brazil loosing 90% of her men and 50% of the population. France also invaded Mexico to help the clergy/landowners during the US War Between the States against Juarez. Palmerson PM from 59 to 65- was sceptical of Lincoln and sympathised with Southern independence, also the British hoped the split would weaken a growing military rival Gladstone for the sake of Lancashire cotton sympathised with the South, Disreali with the North. But they thought defense of Canada a difficult prospect The Irish were by far the largest group emingrating to the US. Many of the others were Jews. Italians didn't start to come till 1880. The Europeans felt it obvious the benefits colonies gained from the west , they never had such confidence before or since. Bismarck was sceptical about the benefits to Europe. Education While Britain and France speculated politically Austria did academic work France increased state education but then put it back in the hands of the church In Germany 2 of 3 seats on the council had to be filled by clergy. In 1857 in Prussia it became illegal not to send kids to state schools but in effect the rich paid the fees for the state school and sent their children elsewhere. Swiss schools better than the French : hygenic schools, well trained teachers, pupils industrious and happy, no corporal punishment and religous toleration Holland and Belgium both also had much praised schools Britain on the other hand suffered from a narrow aristocratic attitude, the poor were not well educated. Dame school was more of a child minding service than a school Charity school run by the parish helped a bit, Industry helped the growth of Sunday schools (not against their interests) which taught to read (for Bible) In the 1830s 1 1/2 million went Literacy rates in GB were low but rose to 67.3% by 1841 for men , 69.3% bu 51 . Many of the girls went into domestic service where literacy was not needed. Later than most of Europe education became compulsory in 1870 With Samuel Smiles education had come to mean the formation of character rather than the assimilation of a culture. State universities were set up in France , Prussia and Italy. Italians studied law and medecine, Germany literature and philosophy Britain had few technical colleges, in Germany in 1820 there were 4 Only one in 5800 received a uni education in Britain versus 1 in 2200 in Germany ,France and Italy.(average) Oxbridge had declined greatly in the eighteenth century ,centres of idleness for the rich, those concerned about education sent their sons to Edinburgh.. They improved creatly in the nineteenth century in a Newmanian sense - where the great problems could be discussed without worrying too much about careers and suchlike. Comte accepted the rise of the scientist as the new priesthood. Catholicism minus Christianity said Huxley. Many of the new scientists- Ohm, Reimann, Gauss, Bunsen-were German Acton- great men are almost always bad men (Catholic historian)- Huxley insisted in judging the people in history against Moral standards ( as opposed to RCs excusing popes,etc. )-good. Walter Scott died in 1832 but his novels popular for the whole of the nineteenth century. Dumas was also of the period he said that after God, Shakespeare had created the most. Balzac, followed ordinary people about so he could communicate in his novels what life was really like, exploring the pain especially of money worries. Zola later, did the same job of communicating authenticity. Tolstoy too was realistic, war is insane chaos, Doestoevsky suffered much under the tsar and his books are very intimate and deep Metternich resigned in 1848, Palmerston died in 65, Second Republic 1848-51 Gladstone and Cobett- no government should have money to spend on foreign wars END "After 1850 wealth and income tended to become more equal" p166 (GW) Geni coefficient decreased thereafter If the welfare state hadn't been devised would there have been class war?
In 1820 , Tax:gdp was 20%, in 1850 11%, and by 1870 only 7% in Britain. ( Comparative Economics) the Corn Laws by campaigners like Englishmen such as Cobden, Bright and > Ricardo and the Scottish Presbyterian James Wilson, founder of the > Economist, an economic policy of laissez-faire and free trade was followed > unbrokenly for around a century. Fittingly enough, it was also a time of > enormous expansion of low-Church and Dissenter influence and numbers. The > first ever Church census in the 1850s found that although by now only > around two thirds of the population actively went to Church, almost half > were dissenters. (The fall in Church attendance's overall had much to do > with the migration of people in the rapidly urbanising society, where > formerly rural labourers quickly lost touch with their country Parish > tradition of worship.) Amazingly, an era of quite unprecedented change, > which produced the first ever urban and industrialised society and created > enormous but unequally distributed wealth, was also associated with > declining crime rates. Nor were the seeds of class conflict sewn in this > era, as is often wrongly suggested - the new trade unions almost all > supported the Liberal party, and by late Victorian times much of the > working class enjoyed unprecedented levels of prosperity. This system > continued until the first world war, which by time the then Liberal Winston > Churchill and other Liberals were building the first proto welfare states > which included old age pension provision. > And then in 1914 it all suddenly started to unravel. The first world ( Ian Wilson )
Questions
What caused the Vienna crash ?
If the welfare state hadn't been devised would there have been class war?
Drop in protectionism : 1800-1840 world trade didn't double, 1840-1870 multiplied by 4 Cobden disliked military spending , which was mainly empire defending or expanding "let governments have as little to do with each other as possible, and peoples as much" Cambridge Economic History of Europe In 1688 14% were in service of church or state or in the professions Average income in Holland was £8/1 and France £6.3 and in England £7 /1. At some point in the C18 the English took the lead as Holland national income/head only grew 14% in the c18. In France the rate of growth was hardly appreciable at 0.3% per head per annum. Which is about 34% in the century. In England incomes possibly doubled in the same period. p9 By the end of the century national incomes were growing by 2% a year and per head by 1% a year. Agriculture was 59% of French NI in 1789, 46% in 45 and still 35% in 1890 French GNP grew slower but so did population. Latecomers grew more quickly as they could use the new technology immediately.(thus we should expect a rapidly increasing rate of economic growth) By 1820 England had 21000 miles of turnpike roads, as much as France which is 3.5 times the size. p217 Roads weren't really affordable by nineteenth century nations when sea was so much cheaper.- even canals were only 1/4 to 1/2 the price of roads. England since Waterloo J Marriot England emerged from the war of 1814 the most powerful nation of the world British India doubled in extent under Wellesley 1798 - 1805. The West Indies took an 1/8th of British exports in 1815 The settlement was ridiculously inadequate compared to the sacrifices it had made in leading the world against Napoleon As always there was an economic depression following the war. Before the outbreak of the war, over half the land was open field, 3200 Enclosure acts were passed in the reign of George 3rd The age of democracy and empire, science and industry Reform Act of 1832 unseated the aristocracy who had ruled (successfully) for the last 150 years and empowered the commerical classes., who economically had been gaining power., the effects came fully into effect by 1865. 1867 "leap in the dark"- enfranchising town artisans and 1880 rural labourers Religous movements : evangelical first third, tractarian middle third, liberal last third. Britian fought primarily outside Europe in the nineteenth century . "it conquered half the world in a fit of absence of mind" The great disruption on 1783 left us without any colonies except New Foundland and the West Indies. , Australia was only a penal colony, the Cape Colony was only a possession India was not a colony- i.e. a place brits emigrated to Prince of Wales ruled Britain from 1810 afterwhich George III was mad. The unpopular Prince Regent although charming was voluptuous, maltreated his only legitimate child, a spendthrift, drunkard, gambler, Lord Liverpool 1812-27 was an able adminstrator rather than a great statesman His cabinet coleagues were conservatives in the sense that no change must take place. Castlereugh ruled England for a long time and was an arbitrer of Europe. When France in 1793 declared war on Britain it had 26 million, versus 14 million people. In the 3 10yr periods from 1790 population rose 11,14,18% p16 esw Revenue about £19,000,000 in 1793 under Pit, the same taxes raised £45,000,000 in 1814 (though much more was needed to finance the wars) ( average spening in the period £65 mil pa "Mistaken kindness that led to the poor laws" In1816 the property tax brought in 15 million, abolished after the war since it was a war tax. The British navy attached Algiers dealing a death blow to their trade in slaves. Of George 3rds 13 children, not one had a legitimate child. In1817. Parliament voted 1 mil for building new churches and .4 mil to Spain for abolishing the slave trade From 1823 the Bank had to redeem its notes in gold again.Bullion Act very powerful effect on stabalising commerce and credit Peterloo: the banners "no corn laws", "annual parliaments","universal suffrage" Although perhaps over violent, the next few years were free of riot, also because trade was now returning. One conspiracy tried to kill the whole Tory cabinet in 1822 as they met at Cato Street. Castlereugh (always very unpopular) commited suicide in 1821 to be replaced by Canning. ,changes weren't as radical as is often thought. The Holy Alliance was partly a genuine attempt to put policy on a Christian base. The sovereigns of Russia, Prussia and Austria joined. Britain only had a regent so was inelligable.France and Spain joined later, Metternich viewed it cynically. Indeed it degenerated into a conference for autocracy. Monro doctrine was 1823, the main risk was France which was occupying Spain to protect the king whom it had destored. John of Portugal ruled from Brazil until he had to come back for insurrections, France wanted to intervene again but Canning wasn't having it! Engish volunteers went to defend Greece against the Turks (religious & classical reasons). Eventually Athens fell. Prussia and Austria's Metternich saw the Greeks as lawless rebels. The Russians and the Duke of Wellington negotiatied that the Greeks should be left alone by the Turks France agreed but not Prussia and Austria. The Turks declined, the British, Russian and French fleets were dispatched but weren't intended to fight, but the Turks fired first and their fleet was sunk in Navorino Bay. Canning died and the new policy was completely different. The Turks went to War with Russia and the latter won, the treaty recognized her possessions in the Caucasus , Moldavia and Wallechia independent under Russian protection and Russian traders in Turkey under jurisiction only of their consul. Criminal law: the innocent were sometimes convicted, the guilty often escaped p57 Juries failed to convict for petty offenses when it could cost the offender his life. Of 655 sentenced for poaching or shoplifting 113 received the death penalty but in not one case was it carried out.(between 1805 and 1807) Between 1811and 1818 100 went to the gallows for the crime of forgery. In fact for the previous 75 years only 25 of the possible 200 capital crimes had actually received the death penalty Peel repealed 278 acts and produced 8 more to change the criminal code 1822-28, he abolished the Benefit of Clergy , new police force in 1829. Navigation Acts since 1650 meant all trade with the British Empire had to come in British ships with British crews. The combinations acts were repealed because they were ineffective and had simply made the combinations more violent.but new strikes and violence let to a new tighter act in 1825 From 1820 to 30 great prosperity broke out exports up 48 -69 million , imports 32 to 46 mil, 174 million was subscribed to new companies but a crash came in 1825 with the bank run where several went out of business. 1000 power looms were smashed in a single week. Canning -his wit - he rarely makes a speak without making an enemy for life- he had great opposition being liberal and being pro Catholic The Duke of Wellington was committed to serving his King no matter what. The Test and Corporation Acts had been annually annulled since 1724 , in 1828 they were abolished. The Lords had effectively ruled the country for 150 years with singular success- in 1832 they were asked to hand that over to others Peel said some children of 7 years old were working 13 hours a day in the factories 1722 had amended the Elizabethan poor act to insist on the workhouse test but 1792 changed all that giving them more on the dole than they would get working. Expenditure in 1818 reached 7.8 mil , 13s 4d /capita In some places the poor rate readched 20s in the £ and farms were abandoned, landlords farmers and labourers were involved in common ruin. Towns were run by councils that were self elected and used the proceeds of the corporations for their own purposes, very seldom for public improvement or police. After 1835 they were elected by all rate payers. In 1837 William 4 who had backed the Reform bill died , Hanover went to his brother and GB and Ireland to Victoria After the "permanent" Whig reform bill the Chartist movement grew greatly. Lord Melbourne, died in 48 Belgium got its independence from Holland in 1830s 1839-42 China war - opium wars The Chinese were hostile to all foreign trade, opium was just part of it. When the monopoly of the East India company lapsed in 1833 the trade that followed was far greater and not as orderly. The Chinese government banned the opium import, the English superintendant agreed for the £2-£5 million pounds worth of opium to be destroyed but refused the demands for the ships to be confiscated and the traders executed! Although Whitehall was clear that violence was not to be used as it would not and never did increase trade, the agents of the spot were less compliant. The treaty of Nankin opened 5 ports to the British but opium remained illegal and was henceforth smuggled. Robert Peel's ministry 1841-6 . Gladstone said no one had been as good at the job since Pitt 1841-2 The bad harvests combined with the corn laws to raise the price of bread Agricultural wages were 9s per week but only 1 1/2 shillings to people living in the house (with board) Tradesmen (joiners, plumbers, masons) got 3 3/4 d per hour or 18s for a week of 64 hours About 1/5th of the population were on poor relief in Birmingham, in Leeds there were 20,000 who earned less than 1s a week , when bread was 10d a loaf. Though this was a year of particular distress. In this context in 1842 Peel brought in the income tax though he did reduce duties, it was still more tax. The harvests of 43-44 were good and things improved Taxes were reduced : tariffs not to exceeded 5% on raw mat, 12% on part-manufactured, and 20% on fully manufactureds. Debt interest paid on consuls fell from 3 1/2 to 3% The Banking act of 1844 basically restricted the issue of notes to the amount in circulation at that time (basically what we would do with bank loans today- restrict circulation to the current amount)p138 Note that the income tax was on the propertied and the subsequent removal of the indirect taxes helped everyone. In 1841 direct taxes were 27% of revenues, in 1861 they were 83% then down to 50% in 1901 p139 The Laffer curve in 1841-6- despite the reduction in customs and excise of 25% of its previous value (£8milin the 5 years) it yielded an extra £400,000 in 47 than it did in 41. The failure of the potato crop in Ireland was so total that the import bar had to be lifted. 1842 prohibited underground work for women and children under 10, regulations for preventions of accidents - more power for inspectors. Peel tried a public works program in Ireland, as a result the other industries were starved of labour. The loss of the potato crop cost £16 million , many landlords were totally ruined Population droped from 8 mil to 6.5 . Homicides went from 170 to 212 ( if that's total for the whole country then at 2.5 per 100,000 its a good deal less than the US today (9) or Netherlands (24) , never mind Columbia (81 per 100,000) Banking crisis of 1848 , averted by printing money (not backed) p158 Chartism came to the fore in 1848 again for the last time but most of its agenda had already been implemented 1847 limits on women and children in textile factories If Raglan's advice to immediately attack Sepastobol had been taken it would have fallen.in 54 Too many departments were responsible for the war- 6 in all. Cavour of Italy sent a contingent to Crimea to win the favour of Britain Crimea cost Britain 23,000 men and £80 million (for what?) (1846 budget was only £55 million !) Palmerston "we want to trade with Egypt, we want to travel through Egypt but we don't want the burden of governing Egypt" -the language of the Manchester school. 100 years before Britain set foot in India the Portuguese had a great empire there. Britain beat the French there in 1763 treaty of Paris and Clive at Plassey in 1757 beat the native princes in Bengal, followed by Warren Hastings victories against the Hindu Marathas (1779-1781) and those of the brothers Wellesley 1802-04 Successive governors charged to extricate the company from non -commercial markets tried and failed to do so. Lord Minto in1807-13 similarly Lord Moira aka Hastings 1814-21. The situation on arrival seemed to require intervention. The Gurkas were were a terror to all their neighbours and had to be put down, this was a police action though perhaps? The Pindaris too has rendered life and liberty insecure by their raids on Central India The first Burmese war cost £14 million and 20,000 lives, started due to the Burmese kingdom advancing into British territory. What the British actually did was observed order out of the chaos of the breakup of the Mughal empire Bentinck, 28-35 annexed Coorg due to the tyranny of its Raja and the unamimous consent of its peoples. He also supresssed the Thugs , a hereditary order of assassins. Sikhs were disciples of the 15th centuty prophet. The annexation of Mohammedin Oudh was due to its oppressive government, the King was warned many times and in 1856 Dalhousie took it . " the British government would be guilty before God and man if it were any longer to aid in sustaining by its countenance an administration fraught with the sufferings of millions" Railway construction- individuals were to find the capital and the government guarantee a certain rate of interest., the post , expansion of trade, national education This created a people when otherwise there were 100 peoples The weakness of Britain to some was shown by the Crimean war, this was part of the cause of the Indian mutiny 56-58 There was no gratitude at all for "the blessings of good government"- oriental conservatism is apt to avoid change even when its for the better. After the Mutiny the crown took over from the Company Queen Victoria undertook that no one would try to force Christianity upon India Periods of overtrading and speculation followed by cessation of demand, contraction of credit and failure of banks. 1857 crisis after the railway speculation ( affects the demand for money, if the supply is constant it surely wouldn't happen) The bank was allowed to issue notes to a maximum of £2 mil over its legal max, which saved the situation. 1856 vote given to university graduates, ministers of religion, medical men, lawyers, certain schoolmasters---- fancy franchises- the bill failed at this point. Naval costs were £9 million in 59 but over £12 mil in 60 and the army was up 1.5 million to £14 mil (threat was percieved from France) 1860 the Cobden free trade treaty, brought tariffs on most major manufacuring goods to zero for the whole world, although the treaty was with France. In the War Between the States ,Gladstone , Palmerston and Russel seemed on the side of the South, with "society" , Cobden and Bright and the working classes favoured the North. The North had no General like Jackson or Lee but they had money, men ( 22 mil versus 9 mil (3 mil slaves)) and machinery of government The blockade of Southern ports cost Lancashire cotton mills dearly, a great charity fund was put together and effectively administered, after 1863 things got a little better- some cotton from Egypt and through the blockade. British exports in 1849-52 average£72 mil pa, in 53-59 £119 , 1860-66 £148 ( £188 in 1966) (despite large drops in those to the US) Between 1853 and 1861 expenditure went from £56 mil to £72 mil, to £66 mil by 1866.. Its more difficult to save a shilling than spend a million said Gladston to Cobden. The 1688 brought into power a group of great families that ruled Britain's till 1832 nominally and much later in actual fact. The Reform act of that year added only 455, 000 votes, 1867 and 84 added more than 3 million. Note the acts that followed : education 1870, Trade unions, 1871-76, factory, artisans dwellings, public health, In Austalia power not vested in the centre explicitly is automatically with the centre In Canada, the opposite. Luxemburg was an intergral part of the Germanic Confederation but ruled by the king of Holland Prussia's success in war surprised everyone . Lord Derby, retired then shortly after died ( a translator of homer,devoted churchman, but he stood for protection, three times prime minister. Gladstones ministry (1870+) included men of great ability. Sir Roundell Palmer agreed with the disestablishment but not the disendowment of the Church of Ireland Cabinets down to 1867 closely conformed to the oligarchic type of the eighteenth century, half of Gladstones were the same - others represented new interests- Goschen- the city, Bright and Forster- the northern manufacturers, The Irish Protestant church was only 1 in 8 people in Irelands Education Down to 1833 education of the poor was done by the churches The church is 39 fiercely resisted attempts by the State to educate teachers, the scheme was dropped but the private system became much keaner to improve standards-training colleges. Future reports gave credit to the labour and self sacrifice of the clergy. Of course with rising wealth that would have increased without state help Grants were only to go to schools taught by certified teachers and on the basis of childrens exam results "it may not be cheap and efficient but is its not cheap it will be efficient , if its not efficient it will be cheap" It was the giving of the vote to the manual workers that led to demands for education It was understood that it was anti-church. The Birmingham partly wanted to wholly secularise it, to strike a blow to the church of England. 1876 act no child could be employed before the age of 10 and not before the age of 14 without a certificate of educational attainment In 1891 state abolished the fees and took over the payment itself - £2mil. Much ciritised at the time 1865 found 572 endowed grammar schools and 10000 private schools Oxford and Cambridge to a lesser degree still had religious test oaths. They were abolished and the Universities were nationalised. Civil service Irish land act deserted laissez faire principles The laissez-faire Manchester examinations started in 1855, and 1870 the whole system became competitive p339 Lowe and the school believed in preparing the colonies for independence, he abolished the registration duty on corn and took pennies off income tax, abolished the taxes on newspapers and railway passengers. The 2p came on again to fund the army then off again in 1872 Conscription- the basis of Prussian success , was considered and rejected Before 1829 recruits to the army were more or less kidnapped Soldiers were now to be taught a trade, this scheme also associated a regiment with a region to increase local patriotism. Attempts to put time limits on pubs (2400 or 2300 in provinces) were not popular p349 + The rapidness and completeness of Prussian victories completely upset Napoleons diplomacy1866 Napoleon and Bismarck both believed war war inevitable , the latter as necessary for the unification of Germany. By publishing various correspondence Bismarck made France look like the agressor And he took Paris forcing France to pay to Germany a huge indemnity 1869 Opening of the suez canal Since the US War Between the States relations with Britain had been bad , due to the allowing of ships to be built and sold to the South. The1870 act made it illegal to build weapons for use against a friendly belligerent power p355 The Americans wanted compensation, the British finally gave £3,250,000 which was cheaper than war they decided, and they felt it was a good example to go before a judicial tribunal rather than war. Gladstone resigned while he had a majority in the house but Disraeli didn't want the premiership without power. Gladstone went to the country to get a mandate for the abolishment of income tax which, but for the Crimean war he'd have done twenty years before. But the Tories swept the country , even in Scotland and Wales the Liberal defenses were weakened. This was the first time since 1846 they had been in a majority position. They said the Tories didn't have a program ,Disraeli said " If by a programme is meant a plan to dispoil churches and plunder landlords , I admit we have no program... the program of the Conservative party is to maintain the institutions of this country". The reference is to the disestablishment of the church in Ireland and some of the rights given to tenants. Notice the coservativism was in a way "laisez faire" , he was going to leave everyone alone ! Of course upholding the empire was also considered important. There was legislation passed to give the Church of England more power to censure legally wrong ritual ( tending in a High direction)- Gladstone firmly opposed unsuccessfully Contagious Diseases act - all country arriving from foreign countries to be slaughtered on arrival unless known to be free from cattle diseases. The free traders sented protection in the measure. A liability measure could have done rather better in that anyone bringing cattle into the country that turned out to be infected would be fully liable. Factory Act of 1877,further reduced hours of work , protested against by Henry Fawcett and other advocates of free trade. Factory Act of 1878, repealed the previous 16 acts on the subject and replaced with one .Brought the inspectorate under the control of the centre. No children under 10 allowed to work, women restricted to 56.5 hours per week in textiles, 60 outside. Glasgow and Edinburgh's local authorities had cleared unsanitary areas and installed new houses for the poor. Waterlow had done the same as a wealthy individual. 1875 Trade Unions- Mr Cross : that which would not be illegal for an individual should not be illegal for the group versus common law against "conspracies in restraint of trade" - masters or men. BOX - Jesus and masters in the parables. BOX- The Jubillee Merchant Shipping Act against unseaworthy, overloaded and overinsured ships. Clearly all that's needed hear is an enforcement of liability law against any deaths that result Northcotes 74 budget was merely the spending of his predecessors surplus, though admittedly he took income tax down 1d to 2d, the lowest it ever was. He increased the states share of the police force from 1/3rd to 1/2 . Greater amounts for lunatics in the assylums.- solution involves the church and their families IN 1876 he had an expenditure of £78 million up £5.5 million from 1874,, 1878 was up £9 million from 1874. After 1878 trade and agriculture started to become depressed. The Zulu war was financed by borrowing since by now trade was down. Disraeli purchased for Britain shares in the Suez canal which rose rapidly in value. The Balkans were still rebelling against Turkey., unlike the rest of Europe , Britain refused to put pressure on the Turk.Eventually £6 mil was provided by the treasury for the fleet to sail to the Dardanelles. Castleraugh " with the internal affairs of sovreign states we will have nothing to do" What about the Turkish treatment of Christian subjects. Bradlaugh, outspoke atheist returned by various constituencies to the house, could not take the oath. Religious test oaths cannot work with Democracy. Burials acts (1880) allowed non Conformists to bury their dead, Ground game act allowed tenant farmers to kill game passing through their land, employers liabilities act gave the workmen legal right to compensation for injury in the course of his work due to negligent management ( this is correct but no need for an act to create this provision) , agricultural holdings act made compensations for improvements compulsory rather than permissive ( bad ) though remember most people in a Jublillee system would not be tenants. 1882 electric lighting act -encouraged local authorities to provide it. Effect was to seriously limit private enterprise and put Britain "Twenty years behind every other civilised country in the provision of commercial electricity" p406 "an apt illustation of the evil that frequently results from well intentioned legislation" Land act 1881 was bad for Landlords and future tenants, good for sitting tenants.p409 The Crimes act in 82 gave power to substitute 3 judges for a jury in some cases (juries took the Irish side but wouldnt if there were penalties to stop)., prohibit meetings and newspapers, to levy rates on districts where murders took place, In 1885 the house voted £11 million for Afghanistan and Soudan without a dissenting voice which wasnt lost on the Russians who agreed to submit the issue to the King of Denmark. In Ireland from 1885 land act, state credit was used to help the Irish buy the land from the landlords same form up to 1903. The Home Rule bill, brought down the liberal government for 20 years. In Ireland landlords pressed their legal rights to the uppermost in England they were far more sympathetic. Death of Gladstone, commanding presence and sonour voice, not as good a debater as Disraeli without his sense of humour and imagination, not like Peel "playing on the house like a fiddle", devoted scholar of Oxford and of the Anglican church. From 1886, the laissez-faire of the Manchester school was jettisonned., more and more was put on the elective principle, heavier and heavier functions were imposed on the state, municipalities invaded the sphere of commercial interest Last period of the nineteenth century was strikes not only for more money but on issues of depersonalisation., 1887 London ,1889 Dockers won better conditions, 1889 gas workers got them profit sharing,other workers the next year and the next 1888 applied the democratic principle to local government, after that point the indeptedness and taxation of them local authorities increased greatly, from debts of £92 mil in 1875 those in England and Wales rose to £482, mil in 1905 Nationally, Peels last budget in 1846 was for £55 mil, in 1898 at £102 mil and in 1913 it was at £195 mil , in an age of deflation. Its this that probably caused the slump after 1879 not the price deflation. 1890 prohibit sale of milk from dairies notified of infectious diseases., same year Housing acts enabled compulsory purchase of unsanitory houses. Shop hours act , not more than 74 hours per week for those under 18 Workmens compensation act in 1897, employers liable even if workers were negligent and they were not (clearly bad !) North Borneo became a protectorate in 1888 Death of Victoria 1901,Shrewdness, simplicity and sincerity, gift of sympathy, devotion to duty. The empire was primarily the work of her reign. Deepening sense of community and solidarity was characteristic of the nineteenth century Oncoming of democracy, extension of empire then formation of the commonwealth,