Demographics
The was a great increase in population in C18 Europe, from 100 mil in 1650 to 187 mil in 1800. The Physiocrats rightly thought the continued increase in population to be necessary for prosperity. From < 1700 to 1800 population of Britain rose from 8 to 15 mil, of France from 23 to 28 , Spain from 7 to 10, and Italy from 9 -13
According to Necker : 1/4 of France died before age 3, another 1/4 died before age 25 and another 1/4 before age 50 thus Social security programs were unnecessary because people died before they were 50 mostly. Some of this was behavioral between 1728-57 gin took a heavy toll on the poor population. On the other hand the life span of high ecclesiastics and nobles was almost as high as today.
Durant : 59% of children died before they were 5 , 64% before they were 10. Feudalism Much of the residue of feudalism remained even into our own century , it receded gradually. In 1660 England and in 1717 Prussia abolished feudal military dues, in Austria they were also gradually abolished p22
Guilds too were phased out, as it was increasingly recongnised that they were bad for the economy being monopolies. In 1776 Turgot abolished many of them in France.
Church persecutions much more common in France and Germany than Britain . In 1731 Arch of Salzburg drove thousands of Protestants from his lands.
Justices in England was by unpaid JPs but in France by paid nobles de robe who had bought the office and used it as a family business. Many were far more reactionary than the clergy and persecuted with more fervour
The French parliament never became representative but insisted on the maintenance of the privileges for which many of its members had paid
In England only propertied people could vote or be judges ( to prevent corruption), by the end of the century there were almost 200 felonies, most thefts punishable by hanging because all legislators were property owners. Prison reform was delayed because the prison owners had bought their offices as freeholds and Parliament couldn't touch that. However at least traders could become land owners and attain civic rights in England unlike on the Continent The National Debt after William 3rd was a force against the revolution as it would have meant many English investors not receiving their money back. Bielfeld pressed for resumption of the status quo: no tax for nobles because they served in war, burghers not allowed to buy land, but clergy not allowed in secular posts Nobles were the largest problem of the eighteenth century being wholly parasitical Author sees Divine right in the churches hallowing of medieval kings. Imperial German court was 1000s of cases in arrears Frederick William converted knights service land into freehold and charged them an extra tax Catherine 2nd 1762-1796 of Russia Turkish lands were sometimes nominally allies merely paying tribute (intimidation rather than conquest). Treaty of Belgrave in 1739 was the climax of Ottoman power in Europe. Ottoman Turks probably descended from a Siberian tribe. The Turk was imbued with fatalism. Constantinople not a capital in the modern sense. Extending the faith by conquest was the main duty of the ruler.
Christian subjects were taxed but not persecuted.
Elective monarchies like Poland are sometimes viewed as republics (the word republic sometimes just meant "the state")
Under Frederick William and his son Frederick the Great, Prussia developed an army that by population was by far the largest in Europe . State service was the most honoured human activity and there was no room for initiative
Norway-Denmark in 1660 has reduced their nobles (though the peasants were still kept as serfs)
Sweden had 1000+ noble families in 1718 out of a population of 1 1/2 million, in 1720 the crown overthrown and in 1770 restored ( period of liberty/anarchy depending on your perspective)
Selfishness is the easiest of all objections to urge against an opponent
Rousseau and Necker were Genevans
Switzerland was one of the most prosperous having become ruled by the cities excluding the lords (no parasites !) and gaining revenues from hiring our 70,000 mercenaries
The Fact of foreign invasions brought the prince of Orange to the fore against the republicanism in 1672 and 1747. The peasants looked to the monarchy as their protectors against the burgers. But the monarch wasn't a permanent expense, he was appointed for the occasion until 1815 when Oranges became hereditary monarchs.
In the US long before the War of Independence, hereditary titles dropped, franchise extended, primogeniture and entails dropped.. The number of capital offenses dropped from 200 in England to 20 at the most in the states
There were many explorations- Abysinia , across Canada, Cook- NZ, Canada ,Pacific
London's honest reputation meant even in wartime French insured their ships there
Seven year war when England captured Florida and Cuba from Spain 1581-1640 Portugal annexed to Spain
French trade was strictly controlled and initiative discouraged, Clive's victory in India in 1751 was the start of the French defeat there The second empire of Britain( Can, Ind) after loss of US, was trusteeship rather than profit. Much educated opinion in England saw the colonies as a cost France: "in the interior transport was impeded by innumerable tolls, but her roads were the best in Europe"* France: factories set up under state control, businesses inspected and regulated, Metalism and zero sum game ideas were current Richard Cantillon; population necessary for wealth, which was land and labour not bullion Quesney, Dupont, Gournay-the physiocrats ( land and labour not commerce source of wealth, tax should fall evenly, liberty and property , and our wealth depends on that of other nations)- national education, national armies - under control of enlightened autocrat.- wanted free trade , a lack of regulations- believed in science as cure to all evils The Dutch had never had mercantilist restrictions but profited from breaking through those of their neighbours Restrictions on trade remained in the Spain of Phil5, Russia under Peter the Great and Prussia under Frederick the Great. Agriculture became more efficient as self sufficiency disappeared and trade increased and more people moved to the factories. Enclosure is the substitution of private ownership for communal rights The 1660 act in England hadn't abolished all the feudal tenures, many were copyholders- mostly free but the new tenant paid a capital sum of 3 times annual value when title transferred to him-unlike in France these dues were negligible compared to the return from improving the land French seigniors lived in cities but still drew income from the land- up to half the price when it was sold, he had to use the lord's press for his grapes and the lord's bull if he kept cattle, the lords mill and the lords bakehouse - all monopolies . These feudal dues were almost equal to the direct taxes Those under the metayer system (about 1/2 ) suffered most ( in this system lord provided implements and seed and took half of the produce , about 1/4 had possession of their land, the other 1/4 were landless labourers. This was good compared to the still manorial system east of the Elbe, especially Junkers in E Germany By the C18 fine Spanish wool was loosing its monopoly and the mestas their power ( emigration of millions of sheep had restricted cereal growing) Mostly vast estates but the Basques were free and hard working farmers In Castille lease were short and corvees heavy In Andalusia the peasants worked 2 months twice a year for the lord Expelling the moroscos had left much land undertilled Entails kept land continually unable to be sold or even divided ( this is not the Biblical system where it could be effectively leased until the year of release) Belgium was independent farmers ( under Marie Theresa of Austria and then Joseph)- intensely cultivated- intermediate between large England holdings and small French ones Switzerland and Luxembourg prospered by small scale independent farmers Rise in prices throughout the century Jethro Tull was a great improver (lime, rotation etc.) Modern hedges began in England to cut across what were open fields England's agriculture was backed by the profits of trade Montesquieu "land are well cultivated not in proportion to their fertility but their liberty" English dissenters went into trade because they were discouraged from the liberal professions Manchester was not incorporates ( no guilds) so anyone was free to come in and start their business there Kay, Hargreaves and Arkwright's machines grew up at this time In Russia in 1721 Peter the Great enabled merchants to buy serfs from nobles for their factories Creativity was clearly higher in Britain- the real source of its wealth was in its minds After1714 the maximum legal rate of interest was 5% "On the whole they were a God fearing people convinced that idleness was sin and that material success is the proof of divine favour" p118 Thrift, integrity and hard work Diplomacy Treaties of Ultrecht -1713 -Bourbon Phil 5 , confirmed in possession of Spain and its empire and renounced claim to French thrown Belgian Netherlands and Milan, Sardinia and Naples went to Emperor Charles 6 Frances ceded Newfoundland Hudson Bay and Spain Gibraltar and Minorca to England Austria was allied with Britain until in 56 changed to France Austria Russia alliance based on mutual enemies of Turk and now Prussia ,and France in Poland Russo Turkish War 68-74, War of Bavarian Succession 78-79 Charles Albert of Bavaria elected emperor in 1742 Death of the last Hapsburg king of Spain in 1700 led to the war of Spanish succession Frederick the Great held that the "balance of power" was to be despised for his greater gain p128 After Ultrecht France and England ( Fleury and Walpole ) were weary with war. In 1715 L14 finally died , L15 was only 5 so L of Orleans took the regency. Philip 5 claimed the regency despite Ultrecht. George 1st also new on the throne has reason to fear the strong Jacobite party In 1716 Fr, Br and Holland allied, and the emperor joined later Spain occupied Sardinia then Sicily and tried to get others to attack Hanover The alliance drove Spain out of Italy The menace of Charles 12th died in 1718 and the menace of Peter the Great filled the gap In 1727 Catherine of Russia died and Peter 2 just a boy Spain lifted siege of Gibraltar and joined F and Br in 1729 In 1731 Duke of Parma died and emperor moved in to keep out Don Carlos of Spain The treaty that followed also invested Britain (G2) with Bremene and Verden ( England and Holland agreed to the pragmatic sanction( Austrian territories to go to Augustus El of Saxony ruled Poland till 33. Strains on A-F alliance in the colonies and A-S in the Caribbean (searched and smuggling) Russia and Saxony expelled the French nominee from Poland and put Aug 3 of Saxony on the thrown Russia instigated a war between Turkey and Persia By 35 the French had taken Milan and the Spanish Naples and Sicily (humiliation for the emperor( who soon lost territory to the Turks also, victory for Elizabeth Farnese of Spain- the most belligerent of them all !). ED These wars and treaties didn't seem to affect the peoples themselves very much who probably paid much the same. In a Biblical system there would be no prize to getting territory as there was no way of collecting taxes- it would have to be introduced and that would be difficult After 1740 rulers much more menacing When Charles6 died Fred of Prussia invaded Silesia, Russia invaded Sweden (defeating the Swedes), , Farnese tried to get more lands in Italy. ( Empress Ann in Russia also died leaving an infant) Note the lack of a war machine without a monarchy -if there were infants there were no wars Marie Theresa now hated Frederick and didn't think England would ever help Austria Count Kaunitz of Austria - victory through ingenuity 1756 Diplomatic Revolution Now Fr vs England in the colonies, Austria- Fr non aggression,(meant Fr abandoning old allies-Swed,Pol,Turk- solidified by marriage of L16 with Marie Antoinette), daughter of Marie Theresa ) Britain-Prussia non aggression, Anglo Russia pact annulled Frederick invaded Saxony in 56, Decadence of Turkey, anarchy of Poland,astuteness of Frederick, amorality of Catherine of Russia Frederick- ally with your most dangerous neighbour-1764 with Russia, The Russians from 1768- 1774 took great chunks of territory from the Turks Poland partitioned in 1772 without force but by threat of force (fairly new) All these wars probably cost the people of the countries a huge amount of money Over Bavarian succession Austria and Prussia went to war but little fighting with people dying more from disease and privation ( as usual) (simultaneous with American revolution) American Rev- professionals suffered defeat at the hands of amateurs (unusual)
No great advances in military history in this period p153 ( rifle replace musket and shots per minute went from 1 to 3 - incremental change) In 1713 Prussia had 38,000 troops in 1786 about 200,000/ Russia increased from 130-450,000 Some volunteers, many kidnapped, some deserters from enemy armies. It was held that those who contribute to the wealth of the state should be exempt , and that those in the army should be disposable ! More died from malaria and typhoid than wounds Commissions could be bought and sold and regiments were virtually owned by their colonel In England 1 officer to 15 men ( most 1 in 30 or more) bad because of all the officers hangers on. Campaigns could only be in summer and not far from supplies and battles were avoided where possible- there was no fanaticism religious (c16-17)or national (c19) Frederick couldn't conduct his wars on Prussian resources alone and so took out loans etc. and exploited conquered territories Naval ships also refused to engage the enemy unless they knew they would win Unlike self sufficient France , Br was dependent on her trade French designed more streamlined ships Many press ganged sailors died due to disease and privation Wars were for the crippling of the trade of the other countries, surely counter-productive Silesia was Protestant and likely to welcome release from the Habsburgs (1740) WARS 1743 Hanoverians,English and Austrians invaded Germany defeating the French In the 45 rebellion there was an attempt to drop Saxon troops in Scotland but a storm drove it back ( a history of the weather and the military would make interesting reading) Saxon victories in the Austrian Netherlands were not accompanied by atrocities ( allied with French) the French also took Madras but were defeated in India, Canada, and Northern Italy In 1745 it was New England troops that took Louisberg controlling the entrance to the St. Lawrence from France, which the British diplomatically exchanged for Madras. Not so much a question of the interests of the country as the interest of the kings ( although through tax revenues there was some correspondence) Only 60,000 French in Canada vs 2 mil in the 13 colonies In Frederick of Prussia alliance Britain had the only man in Europe capable of inflicting defeat on the French who were allied with Spain and Russia and Austria (great men theory of history cropping up) Notice how quickly alliances change as compared to C20. Pitt was successful on the continent when the odds were against it: as usual the French generals were incompetent, Ferdinand of Brunswick replaced the incompetent Duke of Cumberland Fred took Saxony in 1756 but he was invaded by the Russians in the East , had the Swedes in the North , Austrians in the South and French in the West. After some victories he was defeated but because the Austrians didn't follow through he recovered and Frederick would never,ever admit defeat and Britain gave him money Pitt refused to make political appointments over the navy Louisberg and Pittsburg (re)taken. 1759- 2 naval victories over the French stopped their plans for invasion of England and Wolfe took Quebec, meanwhile Clive drove French from India.The French court seemed indifferent disillusioning the French Tsarina Elizabeth's death in 1762 and Peter's complete reversal of policy helped Frederick, Sweden withdrew as a result Further battles then a treaty that almost entirely restored the status quo - what a waste of time, money and lives ! Other treaties gave the whole of Canada and India into British hands except the odd concession Pitts resignation and George3's stop of the Prussian subsidy made the latter an enemy The Danish prospered by remaining neutral (through shipping) Neutrality seems a good policy for a Christian nation at least until its a world power Sweden: Hats( young)-hawks and mercantilists and Caps (old) -doves and liberal economic policy, both wanted free farmers i.e. dropping feudalism. Northern wars - disease and starvation to 1746 Pietism was strong and dancing and theatre forbidden in Sweden Russia was a long contest against the Forests and against the Tartars. Clerics did not play the part they played in Western Civilisation because the literate ones went to monasteries and the active ones were illiterate. Serfdom had only come to Russia in the 16th Century, before there had been a slave class There was a steady denigration of the population. If the state peasant's land was given to a noble then they became serfs Peter the "Great" ruled 1682-1725, most of the others were short rules, he started taxing the peasants( half total revenue) and regulated all industry,. In 1721 factory owners allowed to take over serfs for labour Tax yield trebled (thus preventing improvements in everything else). Much church property taken and non church schools set up. He decreed indivisibility of noble estates so that younger sons would go into the (new) civil service or the army. Criminal law codified- DP existed. Much of the commerce was in the hands of (usually English agent)- no middle class in Russia Anna treated humans and animals with sadistic cruelty Elizabeth's reign saw the founding of a theatre, some scientific journals and an increase in reading Catherine(62-96)- over 20 male partners, bereft of morality (like Elizabeth 1), corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot stayed there, more land taken from the church. Commission set up: everyone wanted decentralisation- the peasants wanted the right to own serfs, the merchants a monopoly on trade and the nobles a monopoly on serfs.( not until 1861 was serfdom abolished). Privileges of the nobles codified: freedom from taxes, trial by peers, right to establish factories and export. Austria : Charles was an intolerant RC, Marie Therese a realistic RC, Joseph a revolutionary- anti papal but pious. In 1781 he abolished serfdom, monasteries dissolved and proceeds used for education . Large measure of toleration to all sects. (many of his reforms of his 10 year reign didn't survive his death in 1790) Due to frequent Turkish invasions- much of Hungary had to be repopulated In Hungary, Belgium and the Milanese Austria took little taxes and was benevolent , Czech Bohemia bore the brunt of the wars and oppression. Loudon of Scotland was a Austrian general. Austria too raised the yield from taxation. Imports were restricted. Belgium on the other hand ,outside the system, prospered. Prussia: Frederick admitted many Hugenots wanting population and character One of the lessons of C17 was the value of the excise tax versus other kinds- invisible and constant since it fell on luxuries (thus impeding greatly economic growth)- In England, Holland and now in Prussia it became the central source of revenue, also the royal lands and a policy of strict economy in contrast to France. The population more than doubled as he was tolerant of all sects being agnostic. He wrote in French, despising German literature and language. He gave nobles monopoly of army appointments New law code maintained immobility of classes, 1763 serfs on Royal domains emancipated to produce more of them The fact that the king improved lands was due to the fact that those who could have improved them better, the peasants had no money because the king had it. Canals sprung up, marshes drained. Planned orphanages to cut down infanticide from its high levels. In Catholic Silesia he brought in French Jesuits so the quarrels of the two groups would render them harmless ! Frederick imposed harsh terms on the vanquished, a legacy that continued. Germany More than 300 states ! Leibniz (1646-1716), Kant (24-1804) Locke said what we knew was derived from sense perceptions, Kant said that the mind was already endowed with space and time perceptions before that- idealist drawn from Plato and to influence Colleridge and Hegel and the Romantics.- denial of the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Latin races have a strong sense of realism, Teutonics sentimental and emotional. Portugal Protected from Spain by mountains on North and East , it won back Independence from Spain in 1640. John 5th was a priest king( celebrating mass), 1706-1750 Joseph 1st 's minister Podal created free trade within Portugal, factories were established with a most of regulations and inspectors (would have happened by itself if nobles hadn't had the power to take the maximum income for themselves that kept the peasants alive. Podal secularised the schools. The prisons were full of his (mostly noble ) opponents. After Joseph's death the nobles and clergy were restored. Spain Unity being precarious, reforms were very gradual. There were 160,000 clergy - 70k seculars, 60k regulars, 30k nuns. Unlike Fr and England ,bishops weren't solely drawn from the nobility and like Ireland parish priests were like the people they pastored (and so were popular) In 1753 by concordat with Vatican- the king took control of ecclesiastical appointments and began to tax church land Their 24 universities were backward focusing on the medieval trivium.- Aristotle and Aquinas Inquisition was also were wealthy( till 1808) and dealt with medical quacks as well as heresy Phil 5 -1700-1757 700 auto de fes but Ferdinand and Charles disliked the inquisition though public demand stopped full extinction Vast aristocracy- hidalgos totally poor but : couldn't be imprisoned for debt or have soldiers billeted on him. Attempts to raise more money from excise taxes were disappointing- the people had no money left after all the other taxes. Spain was still the only place in Europe which had a huge population of beggars. Madrid under Charles: museums, botanical gardens, roads and canals built, beggars (Spain only European country where idleness was not now considered a sin) put into workhouses and vocational schools ( partly securlarised after expulsion of the Jesuits) Italy Sardinia was modelled on Prussia , most of the revenues used to keep up the army Charles when ruler of Naples tried to get rid of clericalism and feudalism(expelling the Jesuits etc.) Papal states: malarial marshes depopulated the area. Frequent lotteries and debasement of the coinage Since the c16 only Italians had been popes and usually of advance years St. Augustine and St. Dominic believed salvation only for the elect, the Jesuits for all men France and Portugal also expelled the Jesuits and in 1769 Fr, Spain and Naples sent envoys to the Vatican demanding its extinction.which Clement the 14th did. Firmian was governor of the Austrain Milanese in 1759-82 and ruled on physiocratic principles , restraints on trade abolished. Beccaria invented the science of penology. Wanted death penalty abolished and also torture claiming that it led to guilty but long enduring men to go free and innocent ones to confess who were just unable to take the torture. In the last decade of the C18 torture was abolished in many states. In Tuscany too Inquisition's power reduced, many saints days abolished, tithe was abolished, perogatives of church courts reduced, Mortmain and entails were made illegal, gilds sequestrated, all enforced by secret police as in Austria. Agric was subsidised as were agri college started France: 40,000 villages who each elected their tax collector, school teacher, herdsman and post man and decided the date of the harvest, apportioned the common lands and arranged the royal corvee of road and bridge building. Collectively they took their complaints to the intendant. Being elected tax collector was to be avoided at all costs as any deficiencies were to be made up from his own estate. When the royal officials took over any defficiency was made up by the richest inhabitant If villagers moved out this didn't reduce the taille All French noble children were deemed nobles making one aristocrat for every 300 commoners Fines and imprisonment were the penalties and people could be arrested without cause In 1781 military office was for those with a least 4 quarterlings of nobility- notoriously incompetent in the 7 year war, All nobility tax free.but couldn't engage in retail (only wholesale) although they sometimes did as nominees. Upper clergy were nobles of no great learning or piety , the lower ones far poorer than those in England. At the same time the patchwork of taxes in France artbitrarily operated, the English had developed a reputation for servicing the public debt entirely absent in France Debauched Regent Orleans with John Law a Scot, chartered companies for Indies and Louisisana and issues notes for the first time. Despite Paliaments opposition debts were repudiated and currency devaluated. At the same time as the South Sea company in England the French did the same ( exchanging national debt for shares) This confirmed French dislike of shares and bonds and no public debt apparatus was developed. No one wanted to emigrate to the colonies and they had to be forced. Cardinal de Fleury was regent from 1726-43 Entails and succession brought to order. Like Colbert, high import taxes and protected industries Louis the 15th was devout (but this time not bigoted) .His bishops were persecutors: baptism into RC within 24 hrs of birth, death for preachers, Hug marriages illegal, Jansenists : RC calvenists who refused to leave the church , usually Gallican vs Jesuits Silly reasons for wars : nobles desires to regain reputation ( Belle Isle 1720s in France), to gain throne for Father in law and so enhance status on consort (war of Polish succession) Louis courage in 1745 in battle was the only point in his reign when we was popular. 1743 - Madame de Pompadour Daughter of a Paris butcher- decided who was to be appointed or dismissed She favoured Parliament against the Jesuits, the philosophes. But Parliament accused the clergy of indep from the state and went on stike delaying administration of justice for a year ! In 1762 the Jesuits were abolished and their property confiscated, but 1814 reestablished by a pope. France at this time was much more populous and wealthy than England p264 Choiseuls reforms of the army: colonels perogative reduced, artillery integrated with army ( not just for seiges), indies monopolies replaces with direct adminstration of colonies, miltary training started, more ships built. Family compact with Spain in 1761, French officers lived in luxury even on campaigns and didn't even have decent maps Turgot in his own province, made taxes equal between the parishes,drained marshes to bring land under cultivation, he applied an edict from 64 that made corn circulate freely Nationally he also abolished the corvee and made corn circullation free but they were reversed a short time later Necker suggested in 81 Parliament should be restricted to judicial functions France intervened in the US war after Burgoyne had had to surrender, it viewed this as the war of revenge against England Marriage of Figaro was sarcasm about social conventions Upper classes crazed about Freemasonry, Illumnati, Cagliosto Science Newton's acheivement took time to seep through the West It was more the scientific academies than the universities that took science on Classical architecture was liked for its expression of naturalness- no complications The Enlightenment Intended for the education of society rather than the overthrow of its order The theory of progress and perfectability of man The church still provided most education free or cheap and the Jesuits were most successful this way, emphasis on Latin prose and composition. After their expulsion their work was taken over by orders like the Benedictines or by town councils or the state Many schools were endowed in England Elsewhere prim education was compulsory but often there were no funds. Dictionaries and grammars were published in all languages, Dissenters had set up their own schools teaching history, measuration and foreign languages to which Anglicans sent their children due to higher chance of employment particularly in the civil service On the continent schools were set up for particular purposes- road building, mining and other vocations Scottish universities: non sectarian, non residencial and inexpensive yet distinguished in medicine science and philosophy but not classics Oxbridge more an anex of the Anglican church , residential and expensive Many of the salons, which arose partly to bypass censorship, were moderated by women. Frederick allowed all opinions but free circulation of books did not exist in Spain and Italy Locke held those advancing crafts and technology as important as those advancing algebra Descartes startes with inate ideas, Locke by rejecting them entirely believing the mind is a tabula rosa on which the senses made impressions Popular because ruling out the inate and transcendal men were therefore equal ( no basis for class distinction ) ( we would have to hold that men are all born with God's destiny in them and so not blank sheets but this doesn't justify hereditary nobility) The romantics held this view didn't allow for poetry and inspiration from inside not out Chesterton's advice to his son in manners involved avoiding the lower class company This codification of manners ( as any codification) implied that the development thereof was complete Until 1760 nature meant humanised, civilised nature as in Gray's elegy. There was a definite obsession with death and graveyards Montesquiue said every nation should have a constitution in keeping with its history and institutions, now it was said that one universal rational constitution was best ( which is conrect if we allow for the fact that it is the one that God lays down not man) Voltaire (-1778)made his fortune early mostly from army contacts, well received by Frederick , and built a model farm , private theatre and 60 person staff .His pamphlets dealt with celebrity causes and so reached a wide audience as intended. He found good and bad in all creeds- Pantheist or Deist. After Lisbon earthquake in 1755 he became wary of optimism. Absolute truth unobtainable. Like most philosophes he believed in a strong monarchy as a barrier against inumerable tyrannies He recommended state education (note the correlation between state education and unbelief) but not for all Rosseau (-1778) Abjured Calvinism for Catholicism, left his children by his servant made to the orphanage, he was solitary, showed no gratitude to his friends and his writings contradictory. "man is born free but everywhere in chains" vs "liberty is not the fruit of every clime". Christianity should be replaced with a civic religion on pain of death for breaking any of its rules.. In education he wanted to protect the child's original virtue, children are to learn from the senses until 12, then espirit between 13 and 16, then reasoning 17-19 and finally morality. At 20 . Judgement more important than knowledge Robinson Crusoe was to be the favourite textbook. The uncooth man of the people is exalted as natural man. By the end of the c18 , dynastic struggles were dieing out, transport was primitive, villages lived in isolation, many machines were clockwork The philsophes had undermined faith in the established order and the prividged had got more so ( and not because of value added !) Called the age of absolutism and the age of reason. But Parliaments limited the monarchy in France as well as England , bureaucracy limited Austria's and noble's Russia's and reason was progressively replaced by sentiment. (1) Europe of the Ancien Regime (AR): By David Ogg (Fontana)